The "Roman Games"
by Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens

These Roman "Games" were an important part of Roman life and they were often the scenes of bloody and horrible displays.

Seneca writes in his "moral Epistles":

References:
"The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome ," Chris Scarre, Penguin Books, 1995;
" Pompeii ," Peter Connolly, Oxford University Press, 1994;
"Gladiators, 100BC - AD 200," Stephen Wisdom (illustrated by Angus McBride),Osprey Publishing--Warrior Series, 2001

  Foot notes:
"Gladiators....." -- Items (1) through (4), pages 7 and 8.

Reference:
Ed. Gilbert Charles - Piccard, "Larousse -- Encyclopaedia of Archaeology," Chartwell Books Inc., 1972

Hadrian’s Wall
Hartwhistle Burn Fort and Mill

by Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens

The northern aspect of the fortlet lies approximately 1100 feet south of the Vallum (see definitions below) and approximately 1500 feet South of the Wall itself.  The small stream, "Hartwhistle Burn" bounds the area to the East.  Approximately 350 feet south of the fortlet is the present - day highway (B6318 -- Carlisle to New Castle ) which bounds the area to the south in an east-west direction.  The Military Way (see definitions below) is shown here as connecting the Cawfields Mile Castle (42), the temporary camps, the fortlet and the Stanegate.

(click on drawings for larger view)

The Vallum in this area runs roughly parallel to the Wall, and just to the North and West of where the wall crosses Hartwhistle Burn, is the remains of a fine section of the defensive ditch.  Just to the West of the Wall at it's stream-crossing point (about 300 feet) can be found the excavated remains of a Roman Water Mill (see figure #2).  The mill base was set just to the West of the Burn (about 50 feet or so) and positioned on a water diversion ditch (millrace) which had been dug breaching the Hartwhistle Burn above and below a stone weir which was apparently built at this time and intended to raise the level of the water upstream of the weir to facilitate a steady flow of water past the mill through the mill-race.

The mill structure itself is a stone foundation built in a rectangular block set at right angles to the millrace.  The mill's upper structure was probably made from wooden framing and willow / plaster fill-in.  The waterwheel was made of wood and was positioned as an "undershot" wheel. The large millstones were found on site and are now preserved and can be seen at the Chester 's Museum.  The mill-race is approximately 200 feet long, and for about 50 feet directly opposite the Mill building has a stone wall on the opposite side of the mill race which helps to support the waterwheel and guard against erosion of the mill-race.  In the modern day the mill site was destroyed by he spoil from the Cawfields Quarry.  There is a small mound or hill between the Burn and the Mill-race.  To the southeast, the mill-site is protected by high ground.  Leading eastward from the rear of the mill is a pathway / narrow road which probably served to remove the finished produce from the mill

The Stanegate (see figure #4 and definitions below) runs East and West through a cutting, then crosses the Hartwhistle Burn and passes under an embankment close by the fortlet, where it joins with the Southern postern gate.  The Stanegate in this area extends from Carovan to Vindolanda.  The fortlet barracks buildings are only suitable for a small garrison.  During the excavation of the granary it was found to be heavily buttressed which helped in it's identification.  This fort was very carefully demolished sometime after it was constructed, probably about the time when the forts were shifted to the Wall's front.

Near the fort are a number of what appear to be temporary camp areas. There are a total of nine such areas, and these may well have been used by the soldier's building the Wall.  There are the following camps in addition to the two shown near the fortlet proper, which make up the nine mentioned above:

--A medium sized camp South of the main road;
--One 500 yards west of the Fortlet site;
--Four lie along the line of the Stanegate, to the West approximately two miles;
--A very large one at Fell's End;
--Two camps are North of the Wall.

All nine of these above listed camp areas can be seen on the Hadrian's Wall Ordnance Survey map. The area within the fortlet around the Admin. Bldg. Granary, and the East and South posterns is paved with stone.  The East postern gate road also joins the Stanegate some distance (about 300 feet) to the East.

Definitions

Stanegate -- Before the time of Hadrian lateral communications had to be along what we now call the Stanegate.  This is the Roman Road which ran from Corbridge to Carlisle .  The name means "stone road", a name given in the Middle Ages, to distinguish it from the normal unpaved trackways. It was used primarily to bring in heavy supplies.

Vallum -- To the South of the Wall was a large earthwork called the Vallum.  Unlike the Ditch to the North it was flat bottom and twenty feet wide and ten feet deep. The upcast was usually piled in two continuous mounds at a distance of thirty feet.  The total width of these earthworks, two mounds. two berms, and ditch was 120 feet.  At the forts the Vallum was crossed by a stone causeway.  The Vallum went out of use about A.D. 140 and at regular intervals of 45 yards the two mounds were breached and their soil was used to form a causeway across the ditch..

The Military Way -- After some years of use a Military Way was constructed as a means of lateral communications.  Its date is uncertain but it was probably built subsequent to the destruction of the Vallum. It ran fro mile castle to mile castle with paths to the turrets.  It is now completely overgrown, but can be traced in places.  It was a typical Roma Road , twenty feet wide, with curbs.

References:-
Ronald Embleton and Frank Graham, " Hadrian's Wall In the Days of the Romans," Publisher, Frank Graham, Newcastle Upon Tyne , 1984.

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Therme
by Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens

The "therme" is a structure and complex of rooms constructed and utilized for the purpose of public bathing.  This type of a building also served as a place in which could be found a great deal of social activity and relaxation from the burdens and responsibilities of the day.

These activities were combined and developed to a very high degree of sophistication during the ancient Roman period of culture.   Public baths have a long history, being known in the palaces of the Egyptian Kings.  However, in these cases the remains were altogether too fragmented and scarce to reach any conclusions regarding type and style.

This public style of bathing was also important in the lives of the early Greeks, as the remaining bathing rooms in the Palace of Knossos , begun in circa 1700 B.C. will attest.   However, we do not see a standardized type of architectural design of the "therme" until the Romans designed and built the great imperial "therme" -- such as the Baths of Titus (A.D. 81), Baths of Domitian (A.D. 95), Trajan's Baths (circa A.D.100), Baths of Caracalla (A.D. 217), and the great Therme of Diocletian (circa A.D. 302).

The general design consisted of several different sets of architectural structures.  First there was the wide garden open to the sky, and secondly this was enclosed by smaller rooms, perhaps used a private club or family rooms, and lastly a block of chambers relating to the act of bathing itself, such as the basic three large chambers; the "frigidarium," "calidarium," and "tepidarium."  These were found with further smaller bathrooms and courts.

The slaves serviced these rooms by a network of underground passageways. These passages provided a way for slaves to move swiftly from one part of the "therme" to another without being seen and without disrupting those enjoying their leisure. In order to solve the lighting concerns and to roof over the larger rooms, a very ingenious development of windows which were actually in or very near to the vault of the roof (clearstory windows) were devised by the Roman Architects.

In modern times archaeologists have discovered many examples of ancient sculpture which were located in the baths, one of which was the famous Laocoon Group from the luxurious Baths of Caracalla in Rome .  Such findings indicate the richness of the furnishings of some of the larger and more elegant "therme" throughout the empire.  Walls were often sheathed in marble to a considerable height, and the floors were also of marble or in some cases the large and very detailed floor mosaics were found, and gilded bronze fittings were used throughout with great generosity.  These types of bathing establishments were repeated throughout the empire in all major and some minor cities using the above essential architectural form.

The Roman bathing technique, although arguable among some archaeologists, was believed to be in the following standardized pattern. The bather was first brought in through the "apodyterium" where he left his clothing, and then entered the "unctuarium" where he was anointed with oil, or he could have a quick cold dip.   The oil was used to anoint the skin and the oil also helped to rid the seat and grime off the body. This was accomplished by the use of "strigels" (bronze curved scrapers). The oil was contained in ointment jars, and poured into shallow bronze dishes.  All of these items were found at the public baths in Pompeii .

  Here too were often donned thick wooden soled clogs to protect the feet from the heated floor.  A pair of these were found in the public baths at Vindolanda along Hadrian's Wall in Roman Britain.. The bather then usually went into a private room or court and exercised in whatever way he washed to indulge himself.  Following this activity he entered the "calidarium" (hot room), and to the "sudatorium" (steam room), then moved to the "tepidarium" (warm room) and finally to the "frigidarium" (cold room).  Here was usually found some kind of a pool or plunge in which the bather could swim leisurely should he desire to do so. The bathing process was completed when the body was once more oiled.

Roman baths were also found in the larger private homes and villas in Rome and in the vacation areas outside of Rome .  The essential feature of a "thermae" from Rome to the outer edges of the Empire was the ability to furnish sufficient amounts of hot and warm water for the users of the baths.  This was done by the again ingenious methodology of circulating the heat from a burning fire under the floor through- out the floors and hollow walls surrounding the supplies of water to be heated.  It was also necessary to supply adequate basins for both the cold, warm and hot water baths.

As a general rule men and women bathed separately.  In the 1st century A.D. The Roman scholar, Pliny the Elder first records mixed bathing, but it is thought that the practice was largely limited to courtesans and was disapproved of by the respectable citizens.  The Emperors Hadrian and Marcus Aurelius prohibited the act of public mixed bathing during their reigns.

The plan below is of the Therme of Diocletian in Rome .  Notice too, the marking of the Entrances (F), the Vestibules (A), the Apodeteria (dressing rooms) (B), and the other areas of endeavor including the quiet rooms, libraries and the theatre.

Reference:
Encyclopaedia Britannica
Peter Connolly," Pompeii ," Oxford University , London , 1990

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Saalburg: A Roman Fort
by D. Claudius Aquilius Germanicus

The Saalburg fort kept watch of the mountain pass on a ridgeline, imposing today over the village of Wehrheim , Germany . It was here where the Limes crossed, separating the Romans from the fierce German tribes.

One day, as I was surfing the internet for a map of surrounding running trains, I noticed that a roman fort was perched on top of a steep and densely forested hill 2 miles south of Wehrheim. I’ve seen the hill every day, because of its location and steep incline. Not knowing what to expect, I searched for the website. The pictures were small and fuzzy, with a map showing very little to see in the fort. One late Sunday afternoon, I decided to go up there and check it out. I planned to give myself an hour thinking that there wasn’t much to see (and I’ve already been to numerous Roman museums.) As I arrived an old fort town was just next to the path to the entrance of the fort. Here one could see shells of ground floors various of the various buildings and homes, including basements, steps, and wells (99 found in the area). The remains of the homes are quite small, giving the impression of spartan living conditions while being stationed far away from Rome and in a hostile area. Lining both sides of the path to the fort, huge distinctive looking trees formed what I would like to believe is a long arch. (These are the same type of trees lining the street opposite of Constantine 's Arch in Rome .)

The next building I went into is a room with frescos adorning the ceiling and walls with mannequins in togas, resembling a group of friends together in a upscale villa. Adjoined to that is the standards sanctuary (aedes principiorum), where the battle standards were and are kept. The location is significant because this room is exactly in the center of the fort. The next building I visited has a number of things on display, from ancient papyrus and wood letters, to altars, to a diagram of the evolution of the Latin alphabet (through present day), to a mile stone. The most interesting object was an altar with very vibrant colors. Reading the description, I found out it was common to paint them. This reminds me of my trip to Egypt , where old temples and memorials were also painted with vibrant colors, which still can be seen today. There is even a partly reassembled supply cart, which was the means of the transportation of goods over land throughout the empire. In this room there is also informational posters about the empire in general, bridge building, and the Religio Romana. The next wing I went into has many posters of the archaeology in the area, postcards and advertisements from the last 100 years, and even some products which featured the fort on the label. There is also more information of the reconstruction plans and about the Kaiser who was the driving force to rebuild the fort.

With little time remaining before closing I went to the Horreum, which was the grain building in ancient times. This is the were the main part of the museum is (if one could believe that after visiting the other buildings.) I took notes of what was interesting to see here, and it filled up a page. For brevity I will only mention the items I’ve never seen on display, not even in the museums I visited in Rome . There was a rack of ancient leather shoes (over 20), which were turned black through time. Next to each is a modern, tan replica to show the visitor what they looked like (some were in very good shape and needed no replica for comparison.) The shoes had different styles; some of them were women’s dress shoes (some being similar to ones worn today.) In one display case there were racks of fibulas, most of them painted and with various shapes. My favorite was of a lion. There was bricks imprinted of Legion XX, Cohors II Raetorum [civium Romanorum] (which was the unit stationed in Saalburg.) There were all sorts of tools, including iron works, farming, agriculture, locksmith, and wood works. I saw board games which I didn’t know existed in ancient times. There was all sorts of household goods, and diagrams of foreign trade and production centers, which traced some of the goods found in the fort to Italy , France , and North Africa . Next to a coin display, the visitor is informed that the pay for a simple professional soldier in the auxiliary troop is 250 Dinare/1000 Sesteri per year, paid in three installments. There was some statues for household altars, and the description said there was "over 500 gods in the roman heaven." As I was leaving the fort, I saw a small sign for the contubernium. Since I was curious, I popped my head into a long building, and quickly realized that it was a reconstructed barracks. Each room had 2 bunk beads for 8 soldiers, with a small fire place and a small entrance where the soldiers hung up their equipment. There were ten sleeping rooms to a barrack, and there was a number of barracks and stables within the walls of the fort. Next door is a restaurant offering an authentic roman menu, but due to time constraints I couldn’t sample the cuisine.

Upon leaving the reconstructed fort I was in a state of awe, having experienced a connection to the roman times that I’ve never felt before. Before the summer was over, I went back to the fort with a camera, dictionary, and plenty of time to explore the surroundings. The second time I went to the Mithraeum located close to the village outside; I went to a section of the wooden palisade wall behind the fort; I noticed the wall of the first stone construction of the fort from 135 ad along with the strengthened wall on top from the 180's; and since it was an open house day I took a tour of the Praetorium (present day offices for the fort administration). I also took a picture of the diagram explaining the expansions to the fort which will be completed in 2007, the 100th anniversary of the reconstruction of the fort. I plan on visiting the fort again once the expansions are completed because a number of buildings will be added.

Some interesting things about the fort:

The purpose of the Upper German Limes was not for defense, but for deterrence. A wooden palisade wall with 2 small trenches behind it was to discourage tribes from wandering over the border, with guard towers placed nearby along the wall with a signal system to each other for efficiency in keeping guard.

500 infantry and 200 cavalry troops were stationed in the Saalburg fort, making it a medium sized fort in comparison to others constructed along the Limes. The closest legion camp was in Mainz .

In 89 AD the first construction of the fort on the present site took place. It was about a third of the present day fort and made of wood. That was torn down and rebuilt with stone around 135. In the 180's, the fort was destroyed by the German tribes, but was quickly rebuilt. In 233 the Alemannii destroyed the fort and in 260 the fort, village and entire limes border was either conquered or abandoned.

There are many events held at the fort for the public today, such as baking bread in reconstructed ovens, archery practice with replica bow and arrows, reenactments, and more.

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Gratia Equitia Marina, Alia Equitia Marina, Paulina Gratidia Equitia, Aulus Apollonius Cordus,
Demetreus Moravius Barbaricus, Decimus Cornelius Romanus, Quintus Salix Cantaber

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