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The
Rise of Philosophy in the West--The Milesian School
Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
From what is known of ancient history, the rise of Philosophy begins in
Greece with a man by the name of Thales. This man is best known by
his ability to predict a solar eclipse in the year 585 BC. Since
the information that Solar eclipses were known to occur in nineteen year
cycles was in the hands of Babylonian astronomers this feat was not of
any particular scientific feat except that the place in which the
eclipse could be seen occurred in one place and not another. It is
to his credit certainly, that his prediction for Miletus was accurate.
Thales was an educated man for this period, and is known to have
traveled widely in Egypt, and to have picked up there the elements of
"rule of thumb" geometry, and brought this science home to the
Greeks. Thales was a native of the city of Miletus in Asia
Minor. He was known as one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, each
known for one wise saying. Thale's saying supposedly was ,
"water is best." The Milesian School, as it is known,
was begun by Thales who believed that all things in the world evolved
from water. He believed that the world floated on water.
According to Aristotle, Thales believed that the magnet had a soul
within it because it moves the iron, and all other things had gods
within them.*
While Thales is too little known to say much about his involvement with
philosophy past what has already been stated, the teachings of the
Milesian School which followed him is much better known. The
following philosopher, by name of Anaxiander presents a more interesting
and better known aspect. He too believed that all things derived
from a common, single and primal substance, but he disagreed with Thales
in that he believed the substance to be infinite and ageless, unknown
but "encompassing all the worlds." According to
Anaximander this substance is that from which all other substances are
formed with which man is familiar. He remarks about this in very
determinate way,
"Into that from which things take their rise, they pass away once
more, as is ordained, for they make reparation and satisfaction to one
another for their injustice according to the ordering of time."
This thought promulgated by the philosopher says in essence that there
should be in the known world a proportion of each of the basic elements
(air, fire, earth and water -- each thought of as a god) and as a god
each of these elements sought to increase it's own empire at the cost to
the other elements. However, there exists a law which is
constantly at work to work at maintaining the balance in the world --
example:- where there has been fire, now there are ashes which is earth.
This idea or concept of the aspect of justice was very strong in in the
Greek belief systems. Not only that but the term
"justice" does not do full account to the idea that the Greeks
believed in. "Justice" in the English language comes the
closest to the meaning but does not include many aspects of what the
Greeks held to.
Further Anaximander believed as reported by Aristotle that the basic
elements of air, fire, water, and earth, are in opposition to one
another. Air is cold, Water is moist, and Fire is hot. The
substance determined by him to be of primal basis had to be a neutral
entity in the cosmic determination of balance.
This philosopher was further involved in the idea of evolution and at
odds with the Jewish / Christian theology about the creation of the
world(s). This creation, his view, was a process of evolution in
which all men were derived from the fish of the sea. His basis for
this idea was that man's long period as an infant of his species could
not have survived in his original status, as he can at this time.
This philosopher is said to have been addicted to a kind of scientific
curiosity which led him to assume that the sun was many times larger
than the earth, and led him also, as is said, to be the first man to
draw a map. He was in his approach to originality always
rationalistic as well as scientific.
This last of the "three' in the Milesian School was Anaximenes.
He was best known probably prior to the destruction of the city of
Melitas by the Persians in 464 BC. In his view the fundamental
material was air. In using this theory which showing differences
between the quantitative element of the substances involved he depends
completely on the element of condensation saying thus:
"The soul is air, fire being rarefied air, and when condensed air
becomes first water, then earth and finally stone.
Anaximenes is thought to have greatly influenced Pythagoras, and the
Milesian School is valuable in the ancient history of philosophy for the
attempts made in the scientific realm. The questions put forward
were realistic, and the work of the Milesian School seemed to be little
influenced by the Olympic Religion which was popular at the time.
__________
*--Burnet, "Early Greek Philosophy" Page
51, questions this last saying;
References:--
--Bertrand Russell, "A History Of Western Philosophy," A
Clarion Book, Simon and Schuster , Pub., New York, 1967;
--Popkin and Stroll, "Philosophy Made Simple -- 2nd Ed.,
Revised," A Made Simple Book , Doubleday Pub., New York, 1993 (ISBN
0-345-42533-3)
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Life
After Death
Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
Ladies and
Gentlemen;
The question of life after death in the Roman world was in the early
years apparently limited to the thought which was widely held that ancestors
existed as ghosts usually within the tomb areas where they were
buried. Those who died, it was also thought, went to a place
called the Underworld there to dwell for eternity. It was also
believed that the spirits (shade of the ancestors also could exert
some kind of influence on the living in some unknown way.
in the area of the 3rd century the practice of burial of human
remains seemed to become more popular than the previous method of
cremation The reasons for this change remain unclear, but one
reason may well have been the rise of the belief that there was a possibility
of a hope and expectation of some kind of life after death.
These hopes may have been brought into existence by the religions
called the Oriental cults and NeoPlatonism. Christianity had
little or no part in this rise of these hopes, at this time, as it
had not yet risen to prominence. As an alternate reason it may
simply be that it became more fashionable to consider more pomp and
detail in the funeral sites and rites than previously thought
appropriate
It does not appear that any specific religious view was accepted by
the Roman populace about the life after death idea, however, there
seemed to be the general belief that those who had died and who were
not accepted into the Underworld by the Gods in command there, had
nowhere else to go but to wander the world above for all time.
This could cause concern because of the possibility that the shade's
failure to gain access to the underworld would place the blame on
the living household from which it had come, or to others of
intimate acquaintance. To this end it appears that weights
were in some cases added to the grave-site to keep the spirit in
it's place, and on other occasion, heads were removed from the body
to prevent this believed roaming and possible conflict.
At the death of a family member or loved one the , the mourning
period (which was in the area of nine days) was filled with mourners
and food and drink offerings) after this period the dead were
remembered both in homes at the personal altars and at certain
festivals particularly the festivals of Parentalia and Lemuria.
Parentalia was the festival of the dead at Rome, from 13 to 21
February. The last day was for public ceremony, , but the
preceding days were for the private commemoration of the dead.
During this festival temples were closed, marriages forbidden, and
magistrates did not wear their insignia of office.
The Feralia was the public festival of the dead held on the last day
of Parentalia, when food was carried to the tombs for the use of the
dead.
Following this day was the 22nd of February, a somewhat related
festival of Cristia or Cara Cognatio (Dear Relation). This was
a day to renew family ties, patch up quarrels, and have a family
meal during or after which an offering was made to the family "lares."
The "Lemures" or "larvae" were considered to be
the members of the household who were fully expected to haunt the
house of their previous life during the days of 9, 11, and 13 May.
which were the festival days of Lemuria. These ghosts were
other than the spirits who were celebrated in the Parentalia
festival, and might be considered to be hostile or approving,
probably determined by the conditions of the individual and the
household during the period in which the individual spirit had been
alive. The worst and most potentially terrifying of these
spirits were thought to be the ones who died at a young age.
It was thought that they held a grudge against those who were still
alive or those who had lived a long life. The following is a
ritual which was apparently followed by each householder;
He arose at midnight, on the 9th of May and made the "mano fica"
sign (the thumb between the middle of the closed fingers -- a
fertility charm) and then walked barefoot through the house.
As he went he spat out nine black beans, or else having washed his
hands first, cast the black beans over his shoulder. These
were for the ghosts to eat as ransom for the living members of the
household whom the ghosts would otherwise carry off. This
ritual was also both accompanied and followed by certain other rites
believed to drive away ghosts. These concerns must have
generated some element of fear in those of the household were hoping
for the shades acceptance of this offering!!!!
On the 11th of May offerings were made to Mania( the mother of the
lares). Mania seems to have been regarded as the goddess of
death, and so a sacrifice to her during the Lemuria festival was
likely.
All of these rituals and beliefs were the result of the general
attitudes toward death and the life after death in the Roman world.
As the Oriental religions and NeoPlatonism began to affect the Roman
culture the hope and expectation of the possibility of life after
death became brighter. Much of the early Oriental Religions
was "borrowed" by the Christian religion and put forth as
it's own. There is still much dispute, even today, about who
borrowed what from who.
In retrospect and consideration of the above, it must be considered
that since much of the attention and a significant amount of time
and effort on the part of the average Roman was devoted to the dead,
those beliefs were strongly held and as such may have been a significant
difference between the way they looked at life and the way in which
we do. Just as those who have indicated the need to learn
Latin in order to arrive at some semblance of the real ancient Roman
view of the world, each of these investigations into the more
detailed culture in which we are currently involved also will have a
great deal to do with the ideas and culture of the ancient Roman
citizen.
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Transportation
in the Roman World
Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
In writing about the subject Roman Roads loom among the largest of the
basic topics. The Engineering of these roads, the design,
selection of materials and the subsequent building techniques are of
significant interest to those studying the commerce of ancient Rome.
The Romans as those civilization before them were well aware that their
world could not be held together without a dependable and variety of
transportation routes for military uses as well as the commerce of the
world in which they lived.
The Romans gained much in this aspect from the Persians, and being the
logical people that they were, they used this knowledge to construct a
road network, so vast and so well built that many of today's roads in
Europe are still based upon the construction of these excellent
roadways.
These roadways not only provided for quick movement of troops and
equipment, the materials of commerce, and the routes for travelers to
all points of the Roman Republic and later the empire, but they were
also the means by which the ideas and devices of the foreign world were
brought to Rome. Not everyone in Rome were enamored of this
influx of new ideas, and vices from outside the Roman World.
Conservative Romans complained the Syria had polluted the Roman world
with their vices, and another asked, "How was vice introduced to
Rome if not by road?"
Roman Roads raise many questions in regard to their construction such as
what were they made of and how did the Romans make them so straight??
Rome , the city was largely the recipient of much of the produce brought
in by the Roads. Corn (actually wheat, maize not being known until
found in the new world) was imported into the city in great quantities
from the granaries of North Africa and Egypt. Of course these
shipments came across the "Roman Lake" as the Mediterranean
was known, and so transportation by sea was also a valuable and
necessary resource for the Roman World. While the roads were
marvels of construction for this period, the movement of bulk commerce
by sea, and river, while slow and often tedious was much faster over
long distances, and ships were in general better carriers than wagons as
to speed, and capacity. However, ships also had their own
problems, as the hundreds of wreck remains around the perimeter of the
Mediterranean attests. Storms on this severe raised both by the
hot winds from the deserts to the South, and the frigid winds from the
mountain height to the North, can be a vicious tempest for the oar /
sail powered stumpy merchant ships to survive.
In construction of the roads surveyors laid out the proposed roadway in
as straight a course as was possible. It is assumed that they
raised towers to survey far ahead of what could be seen on the ground,
although no proof of this has yet been found. They
prepared a deep bed with great care so as to not allow the road paving
to sink and form depressions as these depressions gathered water which
could and did seep into the base and erode the underpinnings of the
roadway. The roads were trench until solid ground was reached and
the the cavity was filled with naturally rounded stones imbedded in non-friable
earth such as clay. Then the whole was covered with large paving
stones of some durable rock such as basalt (silex), granite or porphyry.
These stones were massive in size and fitted together so closely that
they provided a smooth surface. This kind of road was called
"via silice strata" (road paved with silex). The
well-known "Via Appia" was constructed in this way over it's
whole 360 mile (581 km) length.
Shipping and traveling by sea in the ancient world by Roman merchantmen
was usually around the perimeters of the Mediterranean. They did
not stray far from land, and so the sea routes of Roman merchants was
for the most part done in somewhat roundabout routes. The et out
of the sight of land could be dangerous unless one knew how to navigate
from the stars. The Phoenician seafarers were said to have
possessed such skills but they were closely held secrets.
Large cargoes could and were moved by ship, stone for construction, and
the great volume of grain needed for the empire were staples of sea
borne trade, to be delivered either to smaller craft at the mouth of
navigable rivers, or to move overland by the Roman Road network.
__________
References:
--Spielvogel, J, "Western Civilization -- Vol. I (to 1715), West
Pub., 1991, (ISBN 0-314-82893-1;
--Lionel Casson, "Transportation;"-"Civilization
In The Ancient Mediterranean -- Greece and Rome - Vol. III," M.
Grant, and R. Kitzinger, Eds., Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1988;
--D. E. Johnson, "An Illustrated History of Roman Roads In
Britain," Spurbooks Ltd., Buckinghamshire, U.K., 1979 (ISBN
0-906978-34-6)
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Marcus
Aurelius Antoninus
Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
Roman Emperor, born in Rome on the 20 of April, 121AD, and died in
Vindabona (now Vienna, Austria) March 17, 180AD. His original name
was Marcus Annis Verus, and was often referred to simply as Marcus
Aurelius. Marcus was descended from Roman ancestors who lived in
Spain and this attracted the attention of Emperor Hadrian who had been
been born in that province (Spain). The Emperor Hadrian was
pleased to appoint Marcus to the priesthood, and took upon himself the
supervision of his education. Among his teachers during his period
of education was the eminent Marcus Cornelius Fronto one of the ablest
teachers of his time.
Marcus began the study of philosophy and fro 147AD to 161AD he devoted
himself deeply to this pursuit, and eventually became one of the most
distinguished Stoic philosophers. During this period he began work
on his famous "Meditations" which reveal his thoughts in
regard to how he believed life should be lived, and what the meaning of
life meant for him. With this background Aurelius began his reign
as emperor very much as the philosopher-king that Plato had so
desperately wanted nearly five centuries earlier in the Roman world.
In the area of Foreign affairs the Emperor was kept very busy first in a
war with Parthia which ended in Roman victory and the ceding of
Mesopotamia to become a Roman Province. However, this victory was
to cost the empire dearly in that the returning legions brought with
them some kind of a disease which ravaged the Mediterranean Basin.
Immediately following the Parthian conflict, Aurelius turned to the
Germanic hordes who had crossed the Rhinus River and were moving toward
Northern Italy. This task was also met with success and he further
engaged the lands beyond the Danube (the Marcomanni, Quadi, and the
Iazyges ere also conquered. The Germans again descended beyond the
Rhine and he was engaged with them until his death.
In his domestic policies Marcus Aurelius continued the good government
of his predecessors. Among these positive accomplishments were:
--foundation of schools for poor children;
--endowment of orphanages and hospitals;
--reform of taxation;
--abolition of cruelty in criminal laws;
--suppression of informers;
--diminution of absolute power by fathers over children and by masters
over slaves;
--admission of mothers to equal rights to property left by their
children;
--just government of provinces;
--adoption of the principle that merit governed advancement in public
service;
However these above items of accomplishment must be compared to the les
desirable elements of:
--increase in bureaucracy;
--decline of municipal initiative;
--depreciation of currency value;
--and the appointment of Commodus to the purple.
He is also known for his horrendous persecution of Christians whom he
apparently hated. He was devoted to the Roman Religio and his fear
that the Christians would usurp that ancestral set of beliefs drove him
to the fiercest persecution in Gaul where refined torture of these
unfortunates resembled more of a barbaric chieftain that of a civilized
sovereign.
_____
References:
--Sedgewick, Henry D. "Marcus Aurelius,"(New Haven, 1921);
--Farquarson Arthur S. "Marcus Aurelius, His Life and His
World," (Oxford, 1951);
--Haywrd Frank H. "Marcus Aurelius, Savior of Men," (London,
1935)
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Rhine
River Patrol
Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
Rhine River Patrol---
"What did you say??!!" Marcus jerked his head around at
this astounding news. He dismounted quickly and ran to the woman's
side. The woman stood pointing toward the great tree standing
beside the road and the heavy brush surrounding it. There in the
brush just off the road but still hidden from casual eyes was a man
lying face down, with just a part of his foot and ankle visible.
The rawhide slipper had apparently fallen off his foot while he was
trying to reach this place of concealment as another very similarly
soiled and worn slipper was on the other foot just visible to the
questing eye.
Marcus carefully stepped into the brush thicket, and pushing the stiff
fronds to one side knelt beside the prone figure. He reached down
to touch the man's throat to ascertain if he was still alive, when the
man started, and half-turned tugging at a long knife thrust into his
belt. With that beginning effort, he groaned, and then fell back
senseless once again.
Marcus looked up at the woman, who stood in silence behind him with her
hand covering her mouth, and a look of horror on her face.
"Well, he's alive, but not much more. Help me get him up and
out of this brush."
The woman stepped into the bushes on the other side of the fallen figure
and knelt by him. She gently brushed away the shaggy black hair
from his eyes, and carefully tugged at his arm. As his arm came
free the man groaned again and the injured arm, now bleeding again, was
exposed. The woman hastily shifted her grip from the wounded limb
to the man's shoulder and helped Marcus lift him to a sitting position.
"Put him on my horse commander ---- please," she said looking
him in the eye with a distinct pleading in her voice. The former
attitude and animosity was gone now and her entire form and face pleaded
for his agreement. Again Marcus was caught off guard. Her
mood swings were more than he could understand, however, request and
compliance was always better than an argument and he hastily nodded his
head in agreement as they lifted the man to his feet and maneuvered him
out of the thicket and into the open road. Once there they lifted
him onto the woman's horse not without hurting the man so severely that
he groaned loudly twice more when the woman applied too much pressure on
his wounds by accident.. Finally he was securely in the saddle
slumped forward onto the neck of the horse still unconscious.
Marcus let the man's arms dangle on either side of the horse's neck to
steady him better in the saddle. The woman immediately tore long
strips of cloth from the bottom of her ragged gown and Marcus tied the
man's fee together to steady him and his hands together in front of the
saddle. The woman had retrieved one of the water bottles and was
washing the man's wounded arm, The bleeding had stopped.
The man's clothes were little better than rags. The mudpack that
had been in placed over the inflamed wound had flaked away leaving a
muddy ring tinged with black dried blood around the wound.
His appearance might suggest that he was a very poor itinerant worker or
a slave. If he was a slave why was he here in this condition and
wearing a weapon? If he was a worker he could have been set upon
by thieves, but if so why ha they not taken the knife? Marcus was
thinking had about this when he felt a touch on his arm, he turned to
see the woman standing before him. "Please help me to get this man
to my room Sir!!" There is was again. Sir!!!!
Something he could expect from almost anyone except this woman.
What was happening here?
"just what do you propose to do with him when he is in your room
then," asked Marcus. He did not smile but kept a straight
face although he could imagine the answer to the question among his navy
crew.
Looking Marcus in the eye, she said firmly but in a polite tone, "I
propose to take him back with us and tend his wounds. He needs
help, he is hurt, and from his looks he is totally exhausted as well.
If you will not help me then I will endeavor to do something for him by
myself." Her determination was very evident in her voice.
To be continued
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