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Studies
and Education in Nova Roma: Academia Thules Editorial Caeso Fabius Buteo Quintilianus Nova Roma states
that it is "Dedicated to the restoration of To be able to take
part of such discussions, to enjoy our interest of The Academia
Thules is registered as a non-profit organization in In the future we
also have a Roman History and a Nova Roma basic As far as I can
see it is in the interest of the citizens of Nova Senior Censor, Consularis et Senator |
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Engineering:
Water Wheels
Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
Most of the mechanical devices that were present in the Roman period
used man-power for operation. This was accomplished either by a
direct means such as hauling on a rope, or pulling a barge, but also
the use of a treadmill (as in the operation of a Roman Crane, or by
the use of a windlass as in raising an anchor.
Transportation and agricultural tasks were often supported by animal
power, but for the most part human power was the provided power source
for this effort. Because of this apparent situation , it has
been determined that during the Roman Period because of the large
quantity of slave labor that was on the market, ancient engineers had
no need for any other power sources. However, considering that
manpower through slavery was plentiful during the period when our
subject was being designed tested and used with success, that would
not appear to be a suitable argument.
In discussing water wheels in a historical sense it is very often
difficult from the evidence found what kind of a water wheel is being
referred to. There are in fact two types, that concern us in the
Roman period. One is the undershot wheel, and the other is the
overshot wheel which we will discuss at a later time.
Probably the oldest reference is from Strabo writing about 24BC.
He writes about a "hydraletes" (water wheel for grinding
"corn").This wheel was supposedly found existing at Cabiera
in the Pontus and formed part of the property lost by Mithradates when
he was overthrown by Pompey in 65 BC (1). This literary
reference occurs in a Greek epigram attributed to Antipater of
Thesalonica which was probably written about 30BC.This passage relates
to the release of women using hand querns (hand grinding mills).
It includes the lines:
"Your task is now for the nymphs, by command of Demeter,
And leaping down on top of the wheel, the turn it,
Axle and whirling spokes together revolving,
The heavy and hollow Nisyrian stones to grind above (2).
IT is said the Philon of Byzantium devised the idea of lifting water
with bucket driven by an undershot water wheel (a series of spoon
shaped spokes around a central hub. Philons "Pnuematica"
indicates that he was familiar with the water wheel, and if the basic
ideas for the water wheel really start with Philon then this is the
first recorded instance of utilizing the kinetic energy of running
water for a useful purpose. It is a great step forward just as
the discovery of using the wind to substitute for the labor of men and
animals (5).
Vitruvius brings the water wheel and it's obvious advantages to the
attention of the Roman world in the middle of the first century BC.
His description of this new device describes only the undershot kind
of water wheel , and he describes it's operation thusly:
"The wings (paddles) or feathers (pinnae) project into the
water." He then further goes on to describe the power which
can be generated by this device is dependent upon three things
essentially:
--Speed of the water flow;
--number of paddles which are in the water;
--the area of each paddles that the water touches.
The first clear description of any type of water wheel is found in
Vetruvius as indicated above. His work on architecture was
finished about 27BC. Significantly perhaps, the passage below
occurs immediately after a brief description of the noria (undershot
water wheel with paddles).
"Mill wheels are turned on the same principle. (is, as the
noria) except that at one end of the axle a toothed drum is fixed.
This is placed vertically on it's edge and turns with the wheel.
Adjoining this larger wheel there is a second toothed wheel placed
horizontally by which it is gripped. Thus the teeth of the drum
which is on the axle , by driving the teeth of the horizontal drum,
cause the grindstone to revolve. In the machine a hopper is
suspended and by the same revolution the flour is produced (3).
So it becomes apparent to the student of engineering, that this mill
is grinding grain and is powered by an undershot wheel previously
referred to by Vetruvius as the noria. The are some references
which indicate that this type of a wheel is called a "Vetruvian"
device or machine, but throughout his writings Vetruvius gives the
credits for the machines which he is at pains to explain that these
ideas are of earlier engineers, and that at the time of his writing
the machines are in use as accepted technology.
Perhaps it is because of this rather rigid view of the water wheels
operation that it took nearly one hundred years for it's virtues of be
recognized. Vetruvius in his dissertation does not comment at
all on two elements of associated designs which are used very
effectively with water wheels. These being:
--providing a more constant supply of water upstream of the wheel by
the use of a dam or staunch the water source;
--or by creating a faster flow of water by narrowing the stream of
water to strike the paddles.
Of course it may be surmised that Vetruvius was not aware of these
improvements at the time that he wrote of the water wheel, however, to
be sure, later archaeological evidence indicates that these ideas were
seen and acted upon in later years.
(to be continued)
References:
(1)--Joseph Needham, "Science and Civilization in
China." (5 vol. to date), Cambridge University Press, 1954
(onwards), Vol. 4, pt 2 (1965), P. 366;
(2)--ibid., p. 366;
(3)--Vitruvius, De Architechtura (2 Vol. Loeb Classics,
London , 1934, this reprint, 1970), Vol. 2, Bk10, Ch 5, pp. 305-06;
(4)--Philon of Byzantium, "Pneumatics,"lxi,
lxv;
(5) The history of Engineering In Classical and
Medieval Times, Open Court Publishing Co., La Salle, Illinois, 1984,
PP 158 - 59;
(6)-- L. Sprague de Camp, "The Ancient
Engineers,"Ballentie Books, NY, 1963;
(7)--K.D. White, "Greek and Roman
Technology," Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY, 1984;
(8)--Henry Hodges, "Technology In The Ancient
World,"Alfred A. Kopf, NY, 1970;
(9)--John Peter Olson, "Bronze Age Greek and Roman
Technology Bibliography, "Garland Publishing, Inc. New York &
London, 1986
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Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
Trade flourished throughout the Roman Period, and several classes of
people made the various aspects of trade their living. In the
late republic the term "negotiator -- pl. negotiatores"
seems to have implied some sort of financial backer or banker.
However, later it came to mean one who was dealing in trading goods.
This class of Romans were engaged in such work as looking to the
trade of similar item, such as foodstuffs, iron ingots, pottery, or
precious metals. Others appear to have been in charge of
trading companies owned by various investors which might originate
in different countries or provinces. "Mercatores"
were merchants who dealt specifically with only one product such as
grain, wine or oil, and may on occasion have been under contract to
the negotiatores.
In earlier "Eagle" articles we have seen that the trade
routes for such trade extended from the cold Atlantic seas around
Scandinavia in the west, to the China Seas in the far east.
There were also trade routes along what is today known as the Silk
Road and the Major European Rivers draining the European Mountain
Chains to the West and to the East.
Then too there was the Rome to Alexandria trade in "corn"
as it was known which was grain (wheat) from the irrigated fields
along the Nile River.
The glass trade was one of many particular trades to be extant
during the Imperial period are mentioned in Strabo (IV, v, 3) who
recorded his comments during the Principate of Augustus. He
states that this importation of glass products was imported from
Gaul.
Glass was made by heating a mixture of sand (silica), soda, and
lime. The coloration of glass was due to additional
ingredients. Glass beads were produced from the middle of the
3rd millennium, and glass vessels were manufactured in the middle
east by 1500 BC. Glass making was continued in Syria after the
apparent ceasing of the industry in Mesopotamia.
In 332 BC, at the founding of Alexandria, glass-making became one of
the major products of that city with customers including Rome
and others in the Eastern expanse of the Mediterranean.
Glass-making apparently spread from Egypt to Italy and possibly also
to the islands of Rhodes and Cyprus.
Apparently the invention of glass -blowing which came into being
nearly one hundred years before Britain was brought into the Empire
in AD 43. This advance affected the glass industry in a
dramatic way, in that glass production was increased by the
simplicity of glass-blowing over the former limited glass forms and
the competition of similar pottery and metal forms. The
ability of glass-blowers to produce glass vessels quickly, of a
larger variety of forms and colors and the additional ability to
reduce the price of the product brought it into the financial range
of more people to use the product.
Glass was , of course, never an essential product in the ancient
world and for a long period was a luxury item on a par with jewelry
or precious and semi-precious stones. A map (See Reference (2)
showing the distribution of cylindrical mould-blown cups with
gladiatorial and chariot-racing scenes, is very interesting.
The three styles of cups recorded were:
--Gladiator;
--One-frieze chariot;
--Two-frieze chariot.
The gladiator cups were found in;
--Spain (four locations -- two on the eastern side of Spain , one in the South and one in the Pyrenees;
--Five in Gaul, along the Mediterranean Coast, with two found in
Germania, and another in Gaul on the Bay of Biscay;
--One in Northern Italy;
--Six clustered closely together near the headwaters of the Rhine
River, and and six more along the lower Rhine River;
--Five found in the area around Londinium, with eight more in
Britain
In regard to the one-frieze chariot cups:
--Eleven were found near the headwaters of the Rhine with ten along the lower Rhine and it's tributaries;
--Five were found in the inland parts of Germany and Gaul;
--Seven found in Britain along the North Sea Coast.
The two-frieze cups were found:
--Two in Gaul on the Med. coast and two in Northern Gaul and
Germania:
--Three at the headwaters of the Rhine, and two on the lower Rhine
River.;.
--Three in southern Britain;
--One in central Italy;
--One near the headwaters of the Danube River.
Most of these cups found north of the Alpine Mountain chain are very
much like those which were recovered from Southern France (Gaul) and
Northern Italy. It has been suggested that Aquilieia (Calvi
1968 passim) in the Rhone Valley and at Lyons had
"glasshouses" supplying these goods for trade, and may
have been responsible for much of this kind of production.
References:---
(1)--Harden D.B., ""Ancient Glass II:
Roman," "Archaeological Journal"126, , Pges 44-77,
1970;
(2)--Joan Du Plat Taylor and Henry Cleere, Eds.,
"Roman Shipping and Trade -- Research Report #24 -- Trade In
Glass (Jenifer Price)," The Council For British Archaeology,
1978;
(3)--M.C. Calvi, "I Vetri Romani del Museo di
Aquileia, 1968
(4)--Lesley and Roy A. Atkins, Handbook to Life In
Ancient Rome, Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1994;
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Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
Apicius translated:--
Lucanian Sausages are made in the same way as blood sausage; (in a
pig's intestine) grind pepper, cumin, savory, rue, parsley, condiment
(an unspecified mixture of dried herbs and spices)., bay berries and
garum.
Mix this with well-minced pork. Then knead the mince again to
the same consistency. Mix with garum, whole peppercorns, a good
deal of fat, and pine kernels. Stuff into a pig's intestine, and
pull this thin. Hang in the chimney like this. (Apicius 56)
Modern Recipe:
Lucanian Sausages are mentioned often in Latin literature, and crop up
in some of Apiccius' other recipes. They are the ancestors of
Italian salami and other kinds of dried pork sausage with whole
peppercorns and herbs. Salami de Strasbourg is stretched thin,
like Lucanian sausages. Some salami are flavored with fennel
seed, but Lucanian sausages contain cumin.
--1 tablespoon cumin:
--1 tablespoon bay berries;
--1 tablespoon peppercorns;
--5 little green bay shoots;
--1 small bunch of fresh parsley;
--2 stalks of fresh rue;
--2 stalks of fresh savory;
--2 tablespoons of dried herbs;
--1 KG minced pork;
--200 grams of diced bacon fat;
--200 grams of pine kernels;
--6 tablespoons of garum
Grind the cumin, bay berries, and 1 teaspoon of the peppercorns to
powder. Remove the stalks from the herbs, and finely chop the
leaves. Then mi x all the ingredients together. and knead to
remove the air bubbles. Press the mixture into a pig's
intestine, and insure again that there are no bubbles. Tie off
the sausages, and hang them somewhere not too hot above the fireplace
to dry slowly in the smoke, or put them into a smoker.
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Belkis, Turkey: Part I
(This report is supplied to the webzine by Senator Manius
Constantinius Serapio. My thanks for your efforts in gathering this
information.)
I must write a sad and inexplicable piece of news. Here in
Belkis, Turkey, a city that during Roman times was called "Zeuyma,"
we find one of the most important cities on the shores of the
Mediterranean Sea. Zeuyma was a connection for many other
important cities on the River Euphrates. During the last
twenty-five years, the researchers into Roman antiquities have
demonstrated the importance of this place, in Roman History, with the
recovery of a large necropolis with it's wonderful decorations.
In 1996, the archaeologist David Kennedy notified the world that a
large dam was planned for this area, which would submerge all possible
Roman finds in this area. In the following four years,
international teams (mostly Turkish and French) tried to save whatever
was possible. Thanks also to a five million dollar grant of
financial support from the Packard-Bell Humanities Institute of
California (USA) Roman Villas, marvelous mosaics, frescoes, thousands
of silver coins, and one of the most beautiful statues of Mars ever
discovered was found.
The international archaeological community and the Turkish Ministry of
Cultural Heritage could do nothing against the program of the Ministry
of Energy which was pushing the construction of this large dam
project.
In the same way that the dams of Attaturk, and Karkamis have already
submerged a significant number of archaeological sites along the banks
of the Euphrates River in past decades, this new dam construction will
cover much undiscovered ancient materials and remains.
In consequence of the heavy international pressures over this
situation, several European governments (like England and Sweden)
threatened to interrupt the offered financial support for the
presubmergence work. In response, Turkey has assured all
concerned that 70% of all the potential archaeological treasure
of Zeuyma had been saved and would be shown in the Provincial Museum
of Ganziontep, a small and very poor Turkish City.
(to be continued with two drawings of Roman Mosaics which are now
underwater.)
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Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
He was nervous. He didn't want to be nervous but there it was.
He had no help for it. The pole with the full pack at the end
rested heavily on his shoulder and it felt out of balance. But,
he thought, it always felt out of balance before you began moving.
The hard-packed earth beneath his feet gave his sandals a feeling of
stability. No slippage here. The sun had been beating down all
day and the great oval track was dry and raked smooth for this last
event of the games.
All four of the boys were dressed in off-white linen tunics, which
came to their knees and belted with a leather cord. They wore
military style sandals, which were very light so as not to burden the
runners, Each carried a Legionary's shoulder Pole, with a filled
Legionary pack attached to the cross-piece over his right shoulder.
The packs all weighed the same, and the shoulder poles were all of the
same length and size.
The long distance race with a heavy legionary's pack and shoulder
pole, which even now was irritatingly heavy on his shoulder, was the
finishing event for these yearly games. Seven times around the
oval track, and the first runner home was the winner.
Claudius had anticipated this race all year,, and he had worked very
hard developing his stamina for the race. Stamina had been his
weak point in the beginning, that and being able to pace himself
properly, and so he had worked hard all year -- but his determination
to win was marred by the last minute appearance of Lucius Anneus who
was just eighteen on the day after the race, which technically made
him eligible. One day, and the judges had decided to let him
compete. It just wasn't fair. Lucius had won this race for the
last two years running, and he would probably win this one as well
Claudius thought gloomily. Claudius knew the older boy had
trained in secret hoping (expecting??) to be admitted to this last
race. Claudius turned to look at those boys who were ready
to run this race against him. There was Gaius who what he lacked
in skill, he made up for in sheer bulk. His heavily muscled
shoulders, and stolid legs would carry him through the seven laps with
no problem. He was built like a bull, and he probably would not
win, but neither would he be the last one in. He had stamina to
burn and stamina was one of the primary needs for this race.
Quintus, who was his good friend and fellow trainee stood next in
line. He didn't look nervous, but Claudius knew that inside the
youth he would be trembling with excitement and nervousness.
Quintus had told him often enough of this pre-race excitement.
He could hide it from those who didn't know, but the trickle of sweat
out of the short blond hair was an indication either that he was
excited or just plain hot.
Avidius, a new youngster who had just qualified for this run stood at
the end of the line nervously digging a hole in the dirt track with
the toe of his sandal. He was a thin young man, and while he had
run the track on several occasions in training, Claudius wasn't sure
that he would make it in this heat. The pack and shoulder pole
seemed to dwarf him somehow.
Claudius again tuned his attention to Lucius who seemed totally
oblivious of the other boys. He was sure of his victory here,
thought Claudius, and carried away with his own beauty and importance.
Claudius tried hard to like Lucius, knowing that much of his dislike
was jealousy. The sleek, handsome young man had been often
enough told that he was the pride of young Rome, hat he had begun to
believe it. Claudius found it very difficult to curb his
dislike.
From stands was heard the faint notes of the event trumpet, and
Scriptus, the running coach and youth trainer approached to insure
that all at the starting line were prepared.
Scriptus said, "Remember your training lads, and show those
Romans what you've got!!" Claudius settled into his
starting position and his eyes sought the white flag in the hands of
the official starter in the stands. Claudius hoped that Caesar
was still there. He did love these games and brought with him
his whole familial. It was said that his sister was not very
excited about these sports, but she came anyway at Caesar's bidding.
Scriptus spoke again. "Give it all you have my children!!!
Scriptus always referred to his charges in training as "my
children." Claudius shifted his weight and the shoulder
pole rolled slightly. It still felt off-balance.
The white cloth dropped to the track below and the four lunged
forward. The race was on!!!!!
(to be continued)
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Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens Ladies and
Gentlemen of Nova Roma; I am a bit out of
place here (NovaRomaPhilosophy@yahoogroups.com)
as I have never studied
even basic philosophy, so much of what is said here using
"big" words passes me by, which is unfortunate, but
predictable for a person with a limited education. However, what I do understand, I
enjoy. So much so, that it
seemed like a good topic to share with you. I have been offered some on-line instruction on the topic, by one who knows the subject far better than I . So , I am with that promise forthcoming, I will be forced to go back to Master Webster and his marvelous book on definitions in order to better understand what is going on here in this place. "----Philosophy
--literally the love of wisdom; in actual usage, the science which
investigates the facts and principles of reality, and of human nature
and conduct. The science
which comprises logic, ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics, and the theory
of knowledge. 2. A body of philosophical
principles; esp., the body of principles underlying a given branch of
learning, or major discipline, a religious system, a human activity, or
the like; as; the philosophy of history, Christianity, or of business. 3. Practical or
moral wisdom; ethics; 4. Calmness of
temper, and judgement as befitting a philosopher; mental
serenity.---" Since I am
probably in need of of a little bit of #4, I suppose that is why this
topic is so fascinating to me. I
had previously discussed "The Art Of War" by Sun Tzu an
ancient Chinese general, whose works and comments are also very
effectively utilized in business as well.
Since "business" is covered in the above definition, I
feel better already, and certainly. to me at least, there is an Art To
War, and it certainly qualifies as a human activity for reasons both
great and small. These comments
will also be made a part of the April issue of the "Roman Times
Quarterly" and I will be pleased to follow up on my basic attempts
to determine just what philosophy is, and once that is completed begin
to delve very basically into the major philosophies of the Roman world. I would ask that others on this net not concern themselves
with me, as I am learning in my own way, without a text or reference, so
please continue the discussions on your levels of expertise in the areas
of the different Roman Philosophies while I set those levels as a goal
for myself. I am also very
interested in the terms of logic and ethics, as a part of the study of
philosophy, so let us investigate again what Webster in his wisdom tells
us about these two words: Ethics--1. A
treatise on morals. 2. The
science of moral values and duties; the study of ideal human character,
actions and ends. 3. Moral
principles, quality, or character. Logic--1. The
science that deals with the canons and criteria of validity i thought
and demonstration; the science of the formal principles of reasoning. 2. A treatise o this science;
the methodology or formal principles of any branch of knowledge; as the
"logic" of art. 3.
Reasoning, esp. sound reasoning; also ironically, whatever convinces or
make argument useless; as, artillery has been called the
"logic" of kings. 4.
Connection, as of facts , in a rational way; as, by the
"logic" of events, anarchy leads to tyranny. Hmmmm!! Well, I am pleased with my
education so far, and I am eager to dig a little deeper into these
mysteries and the ways in which different men and women bring the above
items together in different patterns of belief and determination. |
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Marcus Minucius-Tiberius Audens
Several people have asked me some questions in regard to Roman history
and culture, and I thought this would be a good place to answer them;
The idea being if one person has a question probably others have the
same question in their minds unasked. I will do my best to
answer any question put to me, and if I can't find the answer, I will
approach someone who does know. Those who have asked the
questions, their names will be kept confidential, and known only to
me.
#1. Who Were The Etruscans?
The Etruscans were people of ancient Etruria, a region in Italy
corresponding to what is now Tuscany and part of Umbria. Exactly
who or what these people were has never been satisfactorily
determined. Their inscriptions have never been completely
deciphered; only the Proper names emerge with certainty; and their
language still defies classification. It was entirely different
from the language of their predecessors in the region. That it
is not Indo-European is the consensus to date; the alphabet resembles
the Greek and the Phoenician. Several theories as to the origin
of the Etruscans have been advanced:
--(1) The Greek Historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus thought that they
were the original inhabitants of Italy;
--(2) Herodotus said that during a famine in Lydia the current king
divided his people into two groups, one group to remain in Lydia, the
other to immigrate under the leadership of his son Tyrrhenus.
The emigrants went first to Smyrna to build ships, and from there to
the land of the Umbrians, where they settled, built towns and called
themselves Tyrrhenians;
--(3) Livy proposed that they came from invading Alpine peoples,
probably the Rhaetians. The most recent specialists in Etruscan
ethnology and archeology corroborate Herodotus. insofar as it is now
believed, that the Etruscans entered Italy in the 9th century B.C.
from the sea, were probably from Asia Minor, subdued the Umbrians and
built a number of fortified towns, which were eventually unified into
a powerful state. That they came from the North is now a
discredited theory, because archaeologists are satisfied that they
entered Italy from the sea and that the northernmost of their
settlements were the latest to be founded. Flinders Petric, a
well known archaeologist believed in their Asiatic origin because
their weights were unlike those in use throughout the Mediterranean
region, but seemed related to those of India.
A new era of culture began with them, the most advanced in Italy
before Roman arms overwhelmed it. The Etruscans were skilled
ironworkers and bronze-workers, active traders, and their products
were sought and bought not only by the Greeks, but even trickled into
the area of what is now Germany, France and Spain through the trade
routes and mountain passes. The Etruscans imported as
assiduously as they exported, and many an "Etruscan" object
d'art has since been proved to be an imported piece of Greek
workmanship. The greatest similarity between Etruscan and Greek
art, however, lies in the fact that both arts derived from the same
Eastern sources. The Etruscan popularity of style,
reflecting both the Asiatic and Egyptian influence distinguishes their
early productions; later Greek influence predominates and finally
supersedes their own. The Etruscans are especially noted for
their characteristic polygonal town walls (sometimes called Cyclopean)
and their cupolaed sepulchers (also called tower tombs). The sepulcher
paintings depict a high level of life: banquets, dancers, musicians,
races, wrestling matches, and hunting scenes. Silver and gold
objects as well as carved gems were found in the tombs, where the
findings also reveal that these people were advanced in dentistry
(artificial teeth, gold crowns, etc. bear testimony to this).
They are much noted also for their black "bochero" pottery
and terra-cotta vases and figurines. Of their twelve cities,
Tarquinii (modern Tarquinia) is noted for it's tombs and tomb
paintings. Caere (modern Cervetri) is noted for it's necropolis;
Veii (modern Veio) for it's sculptures. Vetulonia is famous for
one of the oldest Etruscan settlements. Clusium (modern Chiusi)
was the stronghold of King Lars Porsena, and is noted for it's tombs.
Cosa, Volteria, and Perugia were among the other cities. By the
sixth century B.C. The Etruscans had crossed the Apennine Mountains
and founded Felsina (now Bologna). Bt the fifth century
B.C. their expansion, power and civilization was at it's height.
The Greeks repeatedly tried to curb Etruscan expansion and power, but
it was the Romans who finally halted them in the fifth century B.C.
They became weakened by Gallic invasions, and after the Romans
captured Veil (390 B.C.) the rest of the cities succumbed.
Etruscan culture made it's mark on Roman culture during the first two
centuries of the Roman hold, throughout Latium especially But as
the Roman powers strengthened, the Etruscan civilization
weakened, and by the first century B.C. it had disappeared.
Reference:
John Boardman, J. Griffin, et al, "The Oxford
History of the Classical World," Oxford University Press, Oxford
, NY, 1988, Pages 454-455
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#2. Who Was Lucius Apuleius (Lucius Appuleius)?
Lucius Appuleius was a Roman rhetorician and Platonic sophist, born in
Numidia (or according to some authorities, at what is now Bone,
Algeria), in 123 A.D. and was active chiefly at Carthage. He was
notable as a clever and versatile writer with an encyclopedic range of
interests. In completion of his education he went to Athens to
study the philosophy of Plato. He then traveled widely in Greece and
was everywhere iniated into the m ysteries. He spent some time
in Rome as an advocate and then returned to Africa and settled in
Carthage. He is probably now best known for his
"Metamorphoses" or "The Golden Ass," the sole
Latin novel that survives entirely.. The extraordinary set of
adventures (including the metamorphosis into the shape of an ass)
attributed by Appuleius to the hero of this fictional work were later
freely adapted and used by Fielding, Smollett, Boccaccio, and
Cervantes. Among the episodes woven into the story of the man
who was metamorphosed into an ass is the tale of "Cupid and
Psyche." As an ass, the hero of the romance had ample
opportunity to observe the absurdities of human kind and commented
freely and satirically on them, thus preserving a picture of his age.
Appuleius is also of some considerable importance, although less well
known, for his scientific writings. His most important work in
this field (particularly for the historian of medicine) was his book
on magic (De magia" or "Apologia") which dealt with
various matters not unrelated to those which were the concern of the
alchemists, and thus historically linked to what was later to emerge
as modern science. In this work Appuleius also defended himself
on the charge that he had bewitched a rich woman, much older than he,
into marrying him. All the other scientific writings of
Appuleius, including a translation of an early text on arithmetic,
have now been lost except for "De mundo" (On The World), and
which some scholars have questioned the authenticity of.
Reference:
J. Boardman et al, "History of the Classical World," Oxford
Univ. Press, Oxford, NY, 1988, Page 132.
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#3. Who was Marcus Minucius Rufus?
This man was Roman Military Commander in the last half of the third
century B.C. He was named "magister equitum" (Master
of the Horse, or Cavalry Commander) under the dictatorship of Fabius
Maximus Cunctator (217 B.C.). As did the Roman soldiers,
citizens, and the Carthaginian enemy, he sc orned the harrying tactics
of Fabius against Hannibal, and urged an attack on him. In the
absence of Fabius he engaged in a skirmish with a part of Hannibal's
forces in disobedience of an order from Fabius, and won a victory
which was greatly exaggerated in Rome.
Fabius threatened to punish him but such was the joy in Roe over the
success of Minucius that in an unusual step, Minucius was named as
co-dictator with Fabius. The Roman Army was divided between the
two commanders . Minucius moved the troops of his command to a
separate camp beyond a hill which separated him from Fabius.
Hannibal occupying the hill, lured Minucius into a battle, surrounded
him and would have destroyed the co-dictator if Fabius had not rushed
his army to Minucius' rescue and drove off the Carthaginians.
According to the accounts Fabius uttered no word of
recrimination against Minucius, but the latter publicly acknowledged
his mistake, presented himself in Fabius' camp to thank him and put
himself once more under the command of Fabius. Minucius fell at
the Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.)
Note ! -- In addition to the above, the name Marcus Minucius Audens
was originally adopted from a funeral altar discovered in Britain.
Marcus Minucius Audens served for 25 years in Legio XX, was advanced to
the position of "Milles Immunes" (Legionary Immune the
fatigues of his century) and served as a "gromociti"
(military surveyor). The size and detail of his funeral altar
suggests that he did well in civil life and that someone thought well
enough of him to leave such a memorial to his life.
Reference:
--J. Boardman, et al, "The Oxford History of the
Classical World," Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, NY, 1988, Page 720.
--Listing Book of Roman Funeral Altars found in
Britain, Germany and France.
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Website last updated April 27, 2004
